The Viewer Society
Individuals commonly use the expression “I remember exactly where I was…” when recounting their memories of significant breaking news events like the assassination of President Kennedy, the Challenger explosion, OJ Simpson’s Bronco chase, Waco, 9/11, and other historic live events captured live on broadcast television. The events caught on camera were mesmerizing. The images are ingrained in viewers’ psyches as personal memories.
The television coverage of the assassination of President Kennedy was seen as a watershed moment for broadcast television, and many have said that it is when “television came of age” (Chandler, 2004). Watching traumatic live events is a part of a “viewer society” (Mathiesen, 1997). Whereas the events were “experienced” or “known” through mass media, the liveness creates a personalized effect. The public reacts with sympathy, anger, fear, and the quest for retribution. Politicians, law enforcement, television journalists and celebrity personalities become embedded in the memories.
Television journalists receive just praise for their ability to narrate the chaotic events, yet much of the public is unaware of the efforts behind the scenes to capture historic and life altering images. Credit belongs to the videographers, technicians, and behind-the-scenes individuals who anticipated logistical issues, executing a strategy to broadcast and keep the images on the air while dealing with technological complexities.
On the morning of November 22, 1963, the local TV stations created a set of pool cameras to cover the arrival of the President and his drive through Dallas. Dallas television affiliates WFAA, WBAP, KRLD, and KTVT took strategic positions and shared the live feed. WBAP and KTVT were stationed at the Fort Worth breakfast speech. WFAA had their crews at Love Field, and KRLD was at the Trade Mart. After three shots were fired, KRLD reporter Bob Huffaker and reporter Warren Fulks grabbed a camera and went to the Parkland hospital. The first report of the shooting came from KRLD’s assistant news director, who was traveling in the press car behind Kennedy; he jumped from the car and reported by phone (Mercer et al., 2004).
Technical issues plagued the networks, as local affiliates attempted to provide live reports. Radio broadcasts were ahead of the game, primarily because the technology was more mobile, and locations were not necessary. CBS News, with Walter Cronkite at the anchor desk, showed restraint, mimicking the radio reporting, and did not provide a live video update on location until hours into their coverage, despite having local affiliates ready to go on the air (Chandler, 2004). Reporter Bob Huffaker believed that it was important for him to stay on the air even without new information to assure people that he was there to tell the story as it developed. Summarizing the events was important for those just tuning in. This style of live broadcast reporting came from radio news. But as the events of the Kennedy assassination played out, a more nuanced live reporting method developed, summarizing continuously, visually demonstrating, while gathering new information (Mercer et al., 2004).
In 1963, the broadcasted video image was black and white, often blurry, and frequently out of focus. The video cameras were limited in their portability. Behind the scenes, the cumbersome equipment required teams of engineers and photographers from different networks to work together, sharing feeds and cameras. The public never did see the shooting live, but the announcement of Kennedy’s death interrupted programming. We often believe that the Abraham Zapruder film of President Kennedy being shot was available to the networks during the live coverage, but it was not. The film was hidden from public viewing until 1975. The actual live coverage was a patchwork and collaboration between broadcast networks and local affiliates.
In 1963, on-the-spot news footage of breaking news was shot on film cameras, making it extremely difficult to get the images on the air immediately. The film had to be developed and when it was, it was presented on the air raw and unedited. WFAA’s Assistant News Director and Chief Photographer Bert Shipp, assigned to the welcoming event of President Kennedy, rushed to the hospital to film footage of the presidential limo and events at the hospital. He shot as much as he could, then returned to the station. He went on air to describe his raw footage when it was first screened.
The unexpected shock of the President’s death forced engineers and technicians into action. Managers canceled programming to cover the event live (Baena, 2013). The images people remember, and the collective amount of news information, were the results of hard work and innovation. No network had the resources to cover the entirety of the next four days on its own. Cameras were collected from around the country, as well as microphones, telephoto lenses, lighting, cable, tape machines, generators, transoceanic satellites, and all the other accessories needed to broadcast a live picture and sound. The networks pooled their resources, collecting teams of field engineers, technicians, and enough manpower as best they could on short notice (Kane, 2013).
The stunning images of Jackie Kennedy escorting the casket back to Washington, D.C., still wearing her blood-stained clothes, began a stream of unforgettable video moments that bonded the American public. Camera crews, engineers, and managers anticipated and reacted to what would come next. In Washington, D.C., CBS was assigned the funeral mass at St. Matthews Cathedral, assigning Bill Small as the “pool coverage” director. Pool coverage consisted of four cameras, feeding CBS, NBC, ABC, and Telstar Worldwide. According to Small, four cameras were inside the church. He positioned cameras and helped orchestrate parts of the funeral ceremony based on his coverage. He placed microphones in strategic positions and ensured a mic was in the pulpit. However, the crew manning the cameras came from Baltimore’s WMAR. Short did not know them and never worked with them before. The camera outside the cathedral was confiscated by the police and dismantled. The camera was left in an alley next to the broadcast truck.
Just before the service, as the entourage was making their way into the church, an army colonel entered the truck and asked why a dismantled camera was in the alley. The colonel took charge and told the crew to get the camera working. The confiscated camera was put back in service just as the entourage turned the corner and headed for the church. That camera captured one of the most memorable images of the funeral: the moment President Kennedy’s son John saluted the cortege as it left for Arlington National Cemetery.
Since the Kennedy assassination and funeral, there have been other traumatic live experiences. The coverage of the events on 9/11 is probably the pinnacle of live news. Like the Kennedy assassination, there was the shocking first event not captured by live cameras. The announcement of the shooting funneled viewers to the live chaos, and then a second live catastrophe occurred. The Kennedy coverage broadcasted Oswald being shot by Jack Ruby on live television. The events of 9/11 had the 2nd plane striking the South Tower with millions watching. Subsequent replays of the fatal crash played over and over, mixing with the towers collapsing and people running for their lives. In both cases, technicians, photographers, directors, reporters, and editors reacted to the first event and were fully prepared for capturing history when the second event occurred.
Like 9/11, the death of President Kennedy was a traumatic experience for viewers. Four days of live broadcast reporting left a nation numb. The nation was captivated by the announcement of the assassination of President Kennedy, the swearing-in of a new President, the accused gunman killed on live TV, and a funeral (Eggerton, 2003). The four days of coverage cost the broadcast networks $32 million. The state funeral attracted 81% of U.S. television homes.
Photo caption: Sportscaster Dale Hansen comments on Kliff Kingsbury and the predominantly white head coaching ranks of the NFL in his Unplugged segment; screen grab of the story from WFAA in Dallas, Texas. (Photo courtesy of QuesterMark at https://www.flickr.com/photos/52855156@N00/45794170775).
About the author: Dean Cummings, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor at Georgia Southern University. Prior to teaching, he worked in local television news for twenty-eight years.
References
Baena, V. (2013, November 22). In the control room. The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved at: https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2013/11/22/50-years-later-jfks-assassination-douglas-shafner/
Chandler, C. (2004). Myths of the JFK assassination coverage. World & I, 19(3), 60-65.
Eggerton, J. (2013, November 18). Camelot’s end still casts a long shadow on TV. Broadcasting & Cable, 143(43), 32.
Hagerty, K.D. & Ericson, R.V. (2006). The New Politics of Surveillance and Visibility. University of Toronto Press.
Kane, A. (2013, November 21). Dateline CBS News, Nov. 22, 1963. Cape Cod Times. Retrieved at: https://www.capecodtimes.com/story/opinion/2013/11/22/dateline-cbs-news-nov-22/41815956007/
Jurkowitiz, M. (2013, November 22). 50 years ago, America turned on the television. Pew Research Center. Retrieved at: http://pewrsr.ch/19OFV19.
Liebler, P. (2013, November 21). CBS exec recalls covering JFK’s funeral. The Middletown Press. Retrieved at: https://www.middletownpress.com/news/article/Column-CBS-exec-recalls-covering-JFK-s-funeral-11852380.php
Mercer, B., Huffaker, B., Phenix, G. & Wise, W. (2004). When the News Went Live: Dallas 1963, Vol. 1. Lanham, Md: Taylor Trade Publishing.
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